Indicator organisms

Are those organisms (specie) which are very sensitive to changes in the environment, and whose presence or absence may be indicative of environmental conditions in a particular area or habitat.
However, species composition and relative abundance of individual components of the population or community are usually considered to be a more reliable index of water quality.
Example: presence of E.coli in polluted water.

How indicators are used:

The variety and often low concentrations of pathogens in environmental waters makes them difficult to test for individually. Public agencies therefore use the presence of other more abundant and more easily detected fecal bacteria as indicators of the presence of fecal contamination.

What indicator can do?

Ø Indicator species are used to assess overall sanitation or environmental conditions.

Ø They signal or indicate the potential presence of pathogens of food safety concern.

Ø Used to act as an early-warning system.



Criteria in classification of Indicator organism:

Following factors are considered in classifying an organism as an indicator:

Ø Their strong association with fecal contamination.

Ø Their co-habitation with pathogens of concern.

Ø Simple and efficient testing procedure.

Ø Be easily detected using simple laboratory tests.

Ø Generally not be present in unpolluted waters.

Ø Appear in concentrations that can be correlated with the extent of contamination.

Ø Have a die-off rate that is not faster than the die-off rate of the pathogens of concern.

Ø The organism should not grow in water

Ø The organism should be found in warm-blooded animals’ intestines.

Types of organisms used as Indicator:

Bacteria and other organism which can be used as indicator of fiscal pollution in water and environment are as follow:

1. Coliform bacteria

2. E.coli

3. Enterococci

4. Clostridia

5. Streptococcus bovis

6. Molds etc

E. coli: is a species of fecal coliform bacteria that is specific to fecal material from humans and other warm-blooded animals. EPA recommends E. coli as the best indicator of health risk from water contact in recreational waters; some states have changed their water quality standards and are monitoring accordingly.

Fecal streptococci generally occur in the digestive systems of humans and other warm-blooded animals. In the past, fecal streptococci were monitored together with fecal coliforms and a ratio of fecal coliforms to streptococci was calculated. This ratio was used to determine whether the contamination was of human or nonhuman origin. However, this is no longer recommended as a reliable test.

Enterococci: are distinguished by their ability to survive in salt water, and in this respect they more closely mimic many pathogens than do the other indicators. Enterococci are typically more human-specific than the larger fecal streptococcus group. EPA recommends enterococci as the best indicator of health risk in salt water used for recreation and as a useful indicator in fresh water as well.

Total coliforms:

Total coliforms are a group of bacteria that are widespread in nature. All members of the total coliform group can occur in human feces, but some can also be present in animal manure, soil, and submerged wood and in other places outside the human body. Thus, the usefulness of total coliforms as an indicator of fecal contamination depends on the extent to which the bacteria species found are fecal and human in origin. For recreational waters, total coliforms are no longer recommended as an indicator. For drinking water, total coliforms are still the standard test because their presence indicates contamination of a water supply by an outside source.

DISEASES: Some waterborne pathogenic diseases include ear infections, dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A.

Fecal Coliform Testing:

Fecal coliform bacteria are non disease causing organisms which are found in the intestinal tract of all warm blooded animals. Each discharge of body wastes contains large amounts of these organisms. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in a stream or lake indicates the presence of human or animal wastes. The number of fecal coliform bacteria present is a good indicator of the amount of pollution present in the water.

Most waterborne disease-causing organisms originate in human or animal bodies and are discharged as part of body wastes. Due to the relatively small numbers of disease causing organisms, it is very difficult to isolate and identify specific disease causing bacteria. Since fecal coliform bacteria originate in the same location, they are used as an indicator of possible disease hazards in a body of water. The presence of very few fecal coliform bacteria would indicate that a water source probably contains no disease producing organisms, while the presence of large numbers of fecal coliform bacteria would indicate a very high chance that the water source could contain disease producing organisms.

Most Probable Number test:

The most probable number (MPN) of coliform or fecal coliform bacteria per unit volume of a sample. It is expressed as the number of organisms which are most likely to have produced the laboratory results noted in a particular test.The MPN method attempt, by serial dilution, to introduce one, and only one, bacteria into a fermentation tube containing media for the bacteria to thrive on.

By examining different volumes of sample, one-tenth multiples of 1 mL, it is possible to make an approximate estimate of the number of coliform bacteria present in the sample through consideration of the relative numbers of tubes in the various dilutions which yield positive and negative results. The estimation is in the form of a "most probable number index" which essentially is a concentration of coliform bacteria in the sample (expressed as the number of bacteria per 100 mL of sample) which would most probably yield the same combination of positive and negative tubes as obtained in the examination of the sample. The highest dilution giving positive results in all 5 portions tested and the next 2 succeeding higher dilutions are selected. The results of these 3 dilutions are then used in computing the MPN index. The calculated index will equal the tabular index multiplied by a factor equal to the denominator of the highest dilution giving positive results in all 5 tubes. For example, if all tubes in all dilutions are positive until the 1/1000 dilution is reached, we consider only the 1/1000 and 1/10,000 dilutions as significant. Suppose the results of analysis indicate that the positive tubes for these 3 dilutions are as follows:

1/100 5+ 0-

1/1000 4+ 1-

1/10,000 3+ 2-

The MPN index then equals 280 x 1000 = 280,000 coliform bacteria in 100 mL of the original sample.

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Environmental Law in Pakistan by Gomal Amin

Introduction 

In many countries, environmental laws are weak or are not enforced. Government agencies make decisions about the environment without giving citizens an opportunity to participate in those decisions which results in failure of the law. In Pakistan environmental laws are prepared and are amended in many governments but still there are flaws and are not implemented. Institutions related to environment are important for the management of natural, human resources and implementation of environmental laws. Unfortunately, it is commonly noted that Pakistan has weak institutions for the management of community resources and law implementation. There are many structural deficiencies of the current system, like corruption and poor work ethic, which need extensive national attitudinal reforms. Also, these weaknesses are basic reasons or hurdles in the implementation of environmental laws and regulations. 

Brief History of environmental law and ordinance: 

Pakistan is developing country which faces many problems such as corruption, inflation, terrorism, sectarian violence and political instability. All these factors make it impossible or difficult to implement the law and its formulation. 

No environmental laws were enacted in Pakistan until the late 1950’s and in the first half of the 60’s. Further, the Environment Ministry was established in 1975, as a follow up of “Stockholm Declaration” of 1972 in Sweden. In Pakistan, the reaction of Stockholm Declaration compel the government to establish “Environment and Urban Affairs Division” (EUAD) in 1974 within the Ministry of Housing and Works. EUAD has responsibility for national environmental policy formulation and for administration of national environmental impact assessment procedures, which it mainly undertook through limited review of federal projects and is reported to Ministr y of Environment. 

The Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997: 

The key environmental legislative instrument that is enforced in Pakistan and that provides a broad framework for environmental regulation and enforcement, namely the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 and its related rules, regulations and enforcement mechanisms are discussed below: 

The Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 was passed by the National Assembly of Pakistan on September 3, 1997, and by the Senate of Pakistan on November 7, 1997. The Act received the acceptance of the President of Pakistan on December 3, 1997 and was enacted on 6th December 1997, repealing the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983. 

The PEPA’ 1997 provides the framework for implementation of National conservation strategy (NCS). Establishment of provincial sustainable development Funds, Protection and conservation of Species, and conservation of renewable resources. Establishment of Environmental Tribunals and appointment of Environmental Magistrates 

The preamble to the law (PEPA 1997) states, ‘An Act to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, for the prevention and control of pollutio n, anti-promotion of sustainable development.’ 

And the term environment, as per the Act, includes: 

a) air, water and land; 

b) all layers of the atmosphere; 

c) all organic and inorganic matters and living organisms; 

d) the ecosystem and ecological relationships; 

e) buildings, structures, roads, facilities and works; 

f) all social and economic conditions affecting community life; and 

g) Inter-relationships between any of the factors in sub-clauses  (a) to (f) of act. 

Pakistan Environmental Protection Council: 

The apex body was first constituted in 1984 under section 3 of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance (PEPO), 1983, with President of Pakistan as its Chairman. In 1994, an amendment was made in the Ordinance to provide for the Prime Minister or his nominee to be the head of the Council. The Council was reconstituted after enactment of the new law i.e. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. It is headed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan. 

Establishment of Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency: 

In 1993, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Pak-EPA) was established under Section 6 (d) of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordince, 1983. The Agency started with meager staff and resources. However, number of action were taken which included notification of NEQS in 1993 for municipal and liquid industrial effluents and industrial gaseous emissions, motor vehicle exhaust, and noise. The functions and responsibilities of the Agency enhanced and it was strengthened technically and logistically to meet the environmental challenges. Pak-EPA also provides technical support to the Ministry of Environment, now Ministryof climate change. 

Provincial Environmental Protection Agencies:

In all four provinces, Environmental Protection Agencies were created under the provision of Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. Federal Government has delegated its powers to the provincial governments and they have further delegated powers to the provincial Environme nta l Protection Agencies. Afterward in 2007 EPA-GB was established by federal government of Pakistan.

The names of provincial EPA agencies are as follow:

· Punjab-EPA 

· Sindh EPA 

· EPA Baluchistan 

· EPA-GB 

Establishment of Environmental Tribunals:

The Government is empowered to constitute Environmental Tribunals to hear cases relating to Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. The Federal Government has established four Environmental Tribunal one in each province but they are semi functional.

PEPA 2012 – Amendment:

At the Federal level, the 18th Amendment saw the dissolution of the Ministry of Environment and the creation of a new Ministry of Climate Change. The Ministry must now develop programs to meet the water, food and energy security issues posed by an increasingly unpredictable Mother Nature as well as prepare the country for increased incidences of natural disasters, spread of disease.

Summary:

Pakistan faces many crises in last few decades which cause the environmental legislation process to slow down. There are some many factors which are also responsible for the act. Environmetal law of Pakistan is formulated by specialists but it is very unfortunate for all of us that the law is not much applicable or implemented. Although it cover every aspects such as air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, hazardous waste import, natural resource management, fine claims and NEQS. Government should take steps to implement the environmental law in all provinces. And encourage people to accept the law and follow it.

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Environmental Studies- PDF BOOK

All Rights Reserved to:
ANIL K UMAR DE
ARNAB KUMAR DE


Download the book from this Link.,
(Simply follow the link and download book)

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Current scenario of world’s air pollution

By: Gomal Amin 

Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

Air pollution now a days is threating to all living beings from various aspects. It includes the respiratory and other diseases, which can be fatal. In world the total deaths caused by urban outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause 1.3 million deaths per year. Children are particularly at risk due to the immaturity of their respiratory organ systems. Also indoor air pollution is responsible for 2 million deaths annually. Acute lower respiratory infections, in particular pneumonia, continue to be the biggest killer of young children and this toll almost exclusively falls on children in developing countries.

According to a research inhaling air pollution takes away at least 1-2 years of a typical human life. Deaths caused by air pollution cost the European Union €161 billion and air pollution resulting deaths are increasing fastest in Asia especially in china, India, Malaysia and Indonesia. In china the rising levels of air pollution in Beijing has brought a new disease called Beijing cough and it is astonishing to know 70% of the air pollution caused in Chinese cities is due to tailpipes. It is estimated that 750,000 people die in china prematurely due to air pollution. Air pollution in China is so much that it can travel up to Central Valley of California. The second most polluted country in Asia is India where 25% (527700 people) deaths are due to air pollution. Also it is very awful to know that 2 million cars in Manila, Philippines cause 80% of air pollution.

According to a study it is found that by 2050, 6 million people will die per year due to air pollution. It is important to know that air pollution is not a recent occurrence, in 1952 the Great Smog of London killed 8000 people. These events are not frequent but people are dying slowly due to different respiratory and heart diseases. Increase in the number of vehicles and industrialization different notorious gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are released from burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles, and factories. During heavy traffic jam, pollutants outside can seep into your car, making the air inside car 10 times more polluted than typical city air.

An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is. As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe adverse health effects. Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to different national air quality standards. (Scale of AQI is given in last)

The World Health Organization (WHO) gathered the data on air pollution in various cities and countries of world. The database of WHO contains results of urban outdoor air pollution monitoring from almost 1100 cities in 91 countries. Air pollution is measured by the concentration of fine particulate matter (<10 or 2.5 microns, called PM10 and PM2.5). Globally, more than 3 million people die prematurely each year from prolonged exposure to air pollution, according to the World Health Organization. By 2050, it could be 6.6 million premature deaths every year worldwide, a new study predicts.

According to the study, in Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia, natural sources of air pollution, such as desert storm dust, were the dominant contributor to premature deaths.

Beijing’s average PM2.5 concentration last year was 85.9 micrograms per cubic meter. The figure dropped to 78.8 in the first six months of this year, but it was still more than double the national acceptable standard of 35.

The air pollution from aircraft emissions in conjunction with other anthropogenic sources are expected to modify atmospheric composition (gases and aerosols). Atmospheric changes from aircraft result from three types of processes: direct emission of radioactively active substances (e.g., CO2 or water vapor); emission of chemical species that produce or destroy radioactively active substances (e.g., NOx, which modifies O3 concentration); and emission of substances that trigger the generation of aerosol particles or lead to changes in natural clouds.

Many events occur in world every year such as haze in Malaysia and volcanic eruption in japan, Indonesia and Hawaii. These events has increased the air pollution globally. The total concentration of Particulate matter, Ozone, Sulphur dioxide, lead and Nitrogen dioxide has also increased worsening the health and atmospheric chemistry. It also effect the global mean temperature of world. Across Europe concentrations of PM2.5 ranged between 3 and 35 µg m−3. The extreme pollution from Asia affects cloud formations, precipitation, storm intensity and other factors and eventually impacts climate.

Air Pollution in Pakistan:

Air pollution in Pakistan’s major cities like Lahore and Karachi is 20 times higher than the World Health Organization standards. There are layers of smog, dust and smoke that exist over Karachi. There is also a prominent smell of gasoline that infiltrates air. The PM10 for Pakistan (1999) was 180 micro grams per cubic meter. Pakistan is not in list for air pollution emission but it is in top three most vulnerable country from air pollution. 

Summary:

We conclude that the global air pollution is threating both human health and climate. The most populated and polluted country china is number one country with highest PM concentration. Thousands of people died due to air pollution which mean the current scenario of world is not good and is worsening day by day. Millions of people are dying and the figures of deaths show us how much our air is polluted. It need more laws and regulations to control the emissions of gases into atmosphere. Especially in developing countries where children’s are suffering more.

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"Keep Hunza Clean" to keeping Hunza clean- Role of KADO-HEC in solid waste management of Hunza valley

Dumping site at Hassanabad,Hunza

Solid waste management is a big concern for the developing countries; this is due to the lack of awareness and absence of municipalities. The dilemma of solid waste disposal and management in Gilgit-Baltistan is being tackled by City Administrations, municipal committee and KADO-HEC (only in Hunza). Typically, solid waste management (SWM) comes under the preview of Municipal Services and most of the municipality as well as City Administrations neither have the technical competence, nor the financial resources to provide this vital service on their own.

In Gilgit Baltistan, no planned solid waste management system is available in any of the cities; also the lack of awareness prevails among various stakeholders including general public, shopkeepers and waste handlers, regarding segregation and reduction of waste at source and available alternate options.

In Hunza the solid waste management and disposal is done under the project of Karakorum Area Development Organization (KADO) known as Hunza Environmental committee (HEC). HEC is a sub agency of KADO. It is officially formed in 1997 and working for sustainable and clean environment. The main aim of HEC is a solid waste management in central Hunza with the motto of KEEP HUNZA CLEAN.

The Administration of District and Business community of Aliabad/Karimabad is sponsoring HEC. The total users of HEC-SWM service are almost thousands in number, but due to shortage of finance, staff and vehicle facility, it is difficult to increase the number of users. Every month, the users have to submit fee which is collected by recovery assistant of HEC. The total revenue generated from the collection of fee is used for the maintenance of tractor, fuel and salaries of environmental assistants and other staff members.

Before the emergence of HEC, the local people openly dump their waste near the river area or uncultivated land near their residential area. This practice has created environmental concerns and issues in Hunza valley. The main problems were: spread of epidemics, aesthetic pollution, water contamination, air pollution and soil pollution due to improper solid waste management and disposal.

With the advancement of technology and development, hundreds of people migrate to central Hunza from different villages of Gojal Tehsil, lower Hunza and Nagar. This migration has induced the population of central Hunza and thus a huge amount of solid waste is also generated on large scale. It is a fact that the rate of generation of solid waste in the urban society is increasing with the increase of population, technological development and the improved life style of the people.

HEC has been working since 1997, they took the responsibility of solid waste management in Central Hunza and managed to collect 3292.93 kg/day (Rahman Posh 2000) of waste and dispose it to allocated site near Ganish valley. Initially to accomplish the task, HEC installed 150 waste bins along the road sides, public places, hospitals, hotels, schools and markets. Also, 50 dustbins were installed in different residential streets upon the request of a public. Due to lack of awareness, people some time refuse to pay the fee and they sometimes damage the dustbins. There are many other issues which were faced by HEC at village level, but they have accepted the challenge of keeping the Hunza clean.

Area covered by HEC:

The areas covered by HEC in central Hunza are as follow:

1.     Aliabad (schools, offices, banks, markets, hotels and some houses)

2.     Dorkhand (market area and schools)

3.     Gareth and Shiraz (offices and markets)

4.     Altit and Mominabad (schools and markets)

5.     Karim Abad (schools, banks, hotels and markets)

6.     Hyderabad (markets and institutions)

There are currently 1000 user who avail the service of HEC. To complete the job HEC team work 6 days a week and sometimes work on Sunday, in a case of emergency. The total staff members of HEC are 7 in number and only one tractor with trolley/container is available for collecting and transportation of solid waste.

Problems in collection and disposal of solid waste

Waste produced in central Hunza is of great variety it constitute the waste from general stores. Workshops, poultry shops, hospitals, clinics, bakery, government institutions, schools and colleges. This waste is not collected separately as a result paper, plastic, glass and other recyclable items cannot be used for money generation purposes.

The vehicle used for transportation of waste is not efficient and takes hours for collection and disposal of solid waste at the site. The tractor is not suitable for waste transportation because it does not meet the quality standards for SWM. The numbers of dustbins at primary collection points are insufficient and some of them are damaged. While collecting the waste in commercial area, offensive odor from poultry and biodegradable waste makes the shopkeepers uncomfortable and they start to yell at Environmental assistants. The waste disposal area in hassanabad is not suitable for dumping because it pose many environmental and health problems for dwellers of hassanabad.

Report of GB-EPA (2010)

In 2010, Gilgit-Baltistan Environmental protection Agency published a survey report “Solid Waste Quantities and Characteristics in Seven Urban Centers of Gilgit-Baltistan (GB)”, according to which:

·        The Hunza -Nagar Domestic Solid Waste Generation Rate was around 5 metric tons per day

·        With 63% organic and 38% inorganic solid waste.

·        The total Commercial Waste Generated in Hunza-Nagar is10 metric tons.

·        And according to this report 6 Million rupees were allocated for Hunza-Nagar district (2012-2013).

Concluding my article I personally thanks KADO and Hunza environmental committee for their efforts to keep Hunza clean and standing firm on their motto “Keep Hunza Clean” with limited resource. I request the local administration of Hunza to allocate new dumping area for waste disposal. Due to lack of machinery and vehicles the working process is slow and inefficient, to cope this issue government should provide a new waste compactor for residue collection. I appeal to CM Hafiz Ur Rahman to pay attention at the solid waste problem in Hunza and issue orders for establishing new municipal committee for Hunza.

The contributor is a student of Environmental Sciences at COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad. He can be reached via gomalhunzai@gmail.com. He tweet as @gomalhunzai and is writer of this blog. 

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Atomic emission and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Applications and differences- By Gomal Amin

Atomic absorption spectroscopy Applications

·         Atomic absorption is widely used for the analysis of trace metals in a variety of sample matrices.

·         It is used to determine the metal concentration in water and wastewater, air, blood, urine, muscle tissue, hair, milk, breakfast cereals, shampoos, alloys, industrial plating baths, gasoline, oil, sediments, and rocks.

·         Water analysis of different metals e.g. Ca, Mg, Fe, Si, Al, Ba content is done by AAS.

·         Food analysis and analysis of animal feedstuffs (Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, Se, Zn)

·         Analysis of additives in lubricating oils and greases (Ba, Ca, Na, Li, Zn, Mg)

·         Analysis of soils can be done by using AAS.

·         Clinical analysis (blood samples: whole blood, plasma, serum ( Ca, Mg, Li, Na, K, Fe)

·         Apart from above it can be used in Forensics, Manufacturing, Petrochemical, Drug discovery and design, Metallurgy, and Mining.

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy Applications

·         The principal application of atomic emission spectroscopy is to determine the quantity of a particular element in a given sample or to do Quantitative analysis of sample.

·         The various methods of atomic emission spectroscopy are utilized to examine different substances such as foods and drinks, motor oil and soil samples.

·       Atomic Emission Spectroscopy is predominantly utilized in space research labs by NASA and ESA.

·         It is also used for assisting in various military operations.

·    This emission spectrum can be used as a unique characteristic for qualitative identification of the element.

·         Atomic emission using electrical arcs has been widely used in qualitative analysis.

·         Used in Determination of metals in industrial wastewaters.

·         Used in exploration, mining and processing of metal (ore).

·         Pharmaceutical companies and labs use AES for identification and characterization of biological and chemical samples. 

Differentiate between AAS and AES

The difference between the both spectroscopy techniques depends upon its instrumentation and the main working principal. Following are some points differentiating the AES and AAS.

AAS:  If light of just the right wavelength impinges on a free, ground state atom, the atom may absorb the light as it enters an excited state in a process known as atomic absorption. The energy is absorbed in the excitation process. In AAS, when monochromatic light is bombarded through the sample the atoms absorb energy, and the extent of absorption is recorded. In AAS, a monochromatic light source is used to provide energy for the excitation of electrons. In AAS, there is a separate chamber for atomization of the sample.

AES: Emission spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique which examines the wavelengths of photons emitted by atoms or molecules during their transition from an excited state to a lower energy state. Each element emits a characteristic set of discrete wavelengths according to its electronic structure, by observing these wavelengths the elemental composition of the sample can be determined. Flame is used as light source in AES. In AES, atomization takes place step by step upon the introduction of the sample to the flame.

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Oil and Gas Resources of Pakistan

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